Basics of Research Methods for Criminal Justice and Criminology 3rd Edition by Michael G. Maxfield – Test Bank
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CHAPTER 3 TEST BANK
General Issues in Research Design
TRUE/FALSE
1. Social
science involves three fundamental aspects: theory, data collection, and data
analysis.
ANS:
T
REF: 47
2. In
grounded theory, observations may not contribute to theory development.
ANS:
F
REF: 47
3. Research
projects known as longitudinal studies are designed to permit observations over
a short period of time.
ANS:
F
REF: 67
4. Explanatory
scientific research centers on the notion of cause and effect.
ANS:
T
REF: 71
5. Most
explanatory social research uses a probabilistic model of causation.
ANS:
T
REF: 71
6. Individuals
may be units of analysis in criminal justice research.
ANS:
T
REF: 62
7. When
scientists consider whether causal statements are true or false, they are
concerned with the validity of causal inference.
ANS:
T
REF: 58
8. Ecological
fallacy refers to the dangers of making assertions about large groups as the
units of analysis based upon examination of individuals.
ANS:
F
REF: 64
9. Cross-sectional
studies are those based on observations made at one time.
ANS:
T
REF: 66
10.
A scientific realist approach to examining mechanisms in context
bridges idiographic and nomothetic approaches to causation.
ANS:
T
REF: 55
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. With
respect to causation, _____.
|
a. |
it is the focus of media |
|
b. |
it suggests a cause and effect relationship |
|
c. |
cause in social science is
pre-determined |
|
d. |
research explains most aspects of life |
ANS:
D
REF: 47
2. Which
of the following represent criteria for causality?
|
a. |
there is a correlation between the
cause and the effect |
|
b. |
the effect precedes the cause in time |
|
c. |
the change in the effect is caused by
some third variable |
|
d. |
cause in social science is not
probabilistic |
ANS:
A
REF: 58
3. Validity
is “the approximate truth of an inference”. Here the emphasis is on:
|
a. |
truth |
|
b. |
approximate |
|
c. |
inference |
|
d. |
validity |
ANS:
B
REF: 58
4. When
we say something is valid, we make a judgment about the extent to which
relevant evidence supports that inference as being _____.
|
a. |
reliable |
|
b. |
probable |
|
c. |
true or correct |
|
d. |
untrue |
ANS:
C
REF: 58-59
5. A
scientific realist approach to examining mechanisms in context bridges
|
a. |
Dependent and independent approaches |
|
b. |
idiographic and nomothetic approaches
to causation |
|
c. |
truth and reality |
|
d. |
sample and population differences |
ANS:
B
REF: 60
6. Traditional
approaches to finding cause and effect usually try to isolate causal mechanisms
from other possible influences while the scientific realist approach _____.
|
a. |
views these other possible influences
as deviations |
|
b. |
views these other possible influences
as causal mechanisms |
|
c. |
views these other possible influences
as contexts in which causal mechanisms operate |
|
d. |
views these other possible influences
as true causes |
ANS:
C
REF: 60
7. Which
of the following would not be a unit of analysis?
|
a. |
individuals |
|
b. |
groups |
|
c. |
organizations |
|
d. |
variables |
ANS: D
REF: 62
8. Which
of the following would not be an example of organizations as units of analysis?
|
a. |
police departments |
|
b. |
federal courthouses |
|
c. |
drug treatment facilities |
|
d. |
measurement levels |
ANS: D
REF: 62
9. Which
of the following would be an example of social artifacts as units of analysis?
|
a. |
newspaper editorials |
|
b. |
probation officers |
|
c. |
students |
|
d. |
professors |
ANS:
A
REF: 62
10.
Which of the following would serve as an example of a cross
sectional study?
|
a. |
Uniform Crime Reports |
|
b. |
the 2000 U.S. census |
|
c. |
a single wave of the National Crime
Victimization Survey |
|
d. |
both Uniform Crime Reports and the 2000
U.S. census |
ANS: D
REF: 66
11.
A major midwestern university does annual surveys of its alumni.
These surveys are designed to gauge the attitudes that alumni hold about the
university, its academic programs, and the major team sports. These surveys
have been an annual event for the last two decades and represent which type of
study?
|
a. |
cohort study |
|
b. |
panel study |
|
c. |
trend study |
|
d. |
cross-sectional study |
ANS:
C
REF: 67
12.
Marvin Wolfgang’s study of males born in Philadelphia in 1945
was an attempt to measure delinquency by following those males from their 10th birthday
until they were 18. This is an example of what type of study?
|
a. |
cohort study |
|
b. |
panel study |
|
c. |
trend study |
|
d. |
cross-sectional study |
ANS:
A
REF: 67
13.
What type of study attempts to account for errors in drawing a
sample by measuring the same people on two or more occasions?
|
a. |
cohort study |
|
b. |
panel study |
|
c. |
trend study |
|
d. |
cross-sectional study |
ANS: B
REF: 67
14.
Which of the following would serve as a “snapshot” of a
phenomenon at one point in time?
|
a. |
panel study |
|
b. |
cross-sectional study |
|
c. |
cohort study |
|
d. |
trend study |
ANS:
B
REF: 69
15.
Three broad distinctions underlie many of the variations of
scientific research. Which is of the following is one not of these
distinctions?
|
a. |
idiographic and nomothetic explanations |
|
b. |
inductive and deductive reasoning |
|
c. |
quantitative and qualitative data |
|
d. |
social and cultural artifacts |
ANS:
D
REF: 54-55
16.
Violence in children’s programming is a major research endeavor
that requires counting the number of violent acts in Saturday morning cartoons
for an entire year. The units of analysis being used for this project are
_____.
|
a. |
social artifacts |
|
b. |
individuals |
|
c. |
groups |
|
d. |
organizations |
ANS:
A
REF: 63
17.
Units of analysis are typically also the units of __________.
|
a. |
observation |
|
b. |
crime |
|
c. |
interaction |
|
d. |
fallacy |
ANS:
A
REF: 62
18.
After careful study of the relationship between the economy and
arson, the conclusion was drawn that when the economy is poor and unemployment
is high, the arson rates go up. The researcher concluded that unemployed people
are more likely to commit arson than are those who are employed. What error was
just committed?
|
a. |
the ecological fallacy |
|
b. |
reductionism |
|
c. |
using the wrong time dimension |
|
d. |
an internal validity threat |
ANS:
A
REF: 64
19.
Which of the following are social artifacts?
|
a. |
citizen attitudes about the death
penalty |
|
b. |
editorials in the New York Times |
|
c. |
cities with over 250,000 inhabitants |
|
d. |
months of the year |
ANS: B
REF: 63
20.
A survey distributed on a college campus discovered that males
support the death penalty in greater numbers than do females. The units of
analysis in this case would be _____.
|
a. |
social artifacts |
|
b. |
groups |
|
c. |
organizations |
|
d. |
individuals |
ANS:
D
REF: 62
21.
Which of the following is an example of a panel study?
|
a. |
National Incident-based Reporting
System |
|
b. |
U.S. Census |
|
c. |
National Crime Victimization Survey |
|
d. |
Uniform Crime Reports |
ANS:
C
REF: 67
22.
Scientific theory deals with
|
a. |
the logical aspect of science |
|
b. |
the observational aspect |
|
c. |
operationalization |
|
d. |
data analysis |
ANS:
A
REF: 47
23.
Which of the following would allow a researcher to measure
change in a general population over time?
|
a. |
trend study |
|
b. |
cohort study |
|
c. |
panel study |
|
d. |
cross-sectional study |
ANS:
A
REF: 67
24.
Data analysis looks for patterns in what is ____________.
|
a. |
proved |
|
b. |
observed |
|
c. |
hypothesized |
|
d. |
assumed |
ANS:
B
REF: 47
25.
Having trouble reconciling general patterns of attitudes and
actions with individual exceptions the research personally knows of is termed
the __________?
|
a. |
individualistic fallacy |
|
b. |
ecological fallacy |
|
c. |
observational fallacy |
|
d. |
personal fallacy |
ANS:
A
REF: 64
26.
The relationship between attributes and variables lies at the
heart of
|
a. |
both science and fiction |
|
b. |
publishing your outcomes |
|
c. |
units of analysis |
|
d. |
both description and explanation in
science |
ANS:
D
REF: 51
27.
If a cross-sectional study can be likened to a “snapshot,” and a
trend study to a “slide show,” then which of the following is most like a
“motion picture?”
|
a. |
longitudinal study |
|
b. |
retrospective study |
|
c. |
prospective study |
|
d. |
panel study |
ANS:
D
REF: 67
28.
In the following research conclusion, what units of analysis are
being used? “An enormous variation of deviant activities was represented in a
sample of 1,485 news items. We categorized these deviant activities into five
general types of analysis: violence, economic, political, ideological/cultural
and diversionary.”
|
a. |
individuals |
|
b. |
social artifacts |
|
c. |
organizations |
|
d. |
groups |
ANS:
B
REF: 63
29.
In an examination of violent crime among the most populous
nations in the world, the United States ranks very high along with England,
France, and Australia. The chance of being raped is higher in France than in
the United States. What units of analysis are being used?
|
a. |
individuals |
|
b. |
organizations |
|
c. |
social artifacts |
|
d. |
groups |
ANS:
D
REF: 62
30.
Which of the following is not one of the research methods
discussed in your text?
|
a. |
cross-sectional |
|
b. |
survey |
|
c. |
field |
|
d. |
evaluation |
ANS:
A
REF: 66
COMPLETION
1. Causation,
units, and __________ are key elements in planning a research study.
ANS: time
REF: 47
2. Research
that asks people to recall their pasts is called _____________ research.
ANS:
retrospective
REF: 68
3. The
two pillars of science are logic and ______________.
ANS:
observation
REF: 47
4. Scientists
assess the truth of statements about cause by considering threats to
________________.
ANS:
validity
REF: 59
5. The
relationship between attributes and variables becomes more complicated as we
try to explain how _____________________________are related to each other.
ANS:
concepts
REF: 52
6. Theories
describe ________________________that might logically be expected among
variables.
ANS:
relationships
REF: 54
7. __________________________________________moves
from the specific to the general, from a set of particular observations to the
discovery of a pattern that represents some degree of order among the varied
events under examination.
ANS: Inductive
reasoning
REF: 56
8. When
a researcher reports findings from data gathered on groups to the individuals
within those groups, a(n) ________________________ has occurred.
ANS: ecological fallacy
REF: 64
9. Examples
of longitudinal studies include: Trend, Panel, and ________________.
ANS:
cohort
REF: 67
10.
Exploratory and descriptive studies frequently are
_______________________ in nature since they allow data to be gathered at one
point in time.
ANS:
cross-sectional
REF: 66
ESSAY
1. Define
cohort, panel and cross-sectional study. Give an example of each.
REF: 66-67
2. Explain
in detail using an example of the way in which the ecological fallacy is the
result of errors with units of analysis.
REF: 64
3. Give
a hypothetical situation that would lend itself to a cross-sectional study.
What would be the research purpose in your hypothetical? Why would your example
not lend itself to a longitudinal approach?
REF: 66
4. Explain
the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning. Give an example of
each from the criminal justice literature.
REF: Chapter 3
CHAPTER 5 TEST BANK
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
TRUE/FALSE
1. Experimentation
is an approach to research best suited for exploration.
ANS:
F
REF: 105
2. The defining
feature of an experiment lies in the control of the independent variable by the
experimenter.
ANS:
T
REF: 105
3. The
independent variable in a classical experiment must be a ratio level variable.
ANS:
F
REF: 105-106
4. In
the classical experiment subjects are measured on the independent variable
before the experiment begins and again after the dependent variable has been
manipulated by the researcher.
ANS:
F
REF: 105-106
5. Construct
validity refers to generalizing from what we observe and measure to the
real-world things in which we are interested.
ANS:
T
REF: 113
6. The
main reason that experiments in criminal justice are so easy to complete is
that the researcher need only secure one experimental and one control group for
any project.
ANS:
F
REF: 08
7. The
threat of statistical regression is a concern any time the researcher begins
with subjects who exhibit extreme values on the dependent variable.
ANS:
T
REF: 111
8. Construct
validity is concerned with the ability to generalize from the results of the
experimental group to the control group.
ANS:
F
REF: 113
9. There
may be legal reasons why randomization cannot be used in criminal justice
research to assign subjects to either a control group or an experimental group.
ANS:
T
REF: 116
10.
In case-oriented research, a great number of cases are examined
in order to understand a small number of variables.
ANS:
T
REF: 124
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Which
of the following is most accurate?
|
a. |
Experiments can be used only in
scientific inquiry. |
|
b. |
Experiments involve only observing the consequences
. |
|
c. |
Experiments can be used in scientific
and nonscientific human inquiry. |
|
d. |
Experiments involve the researcher
taking action but they are unconcerned with the consequences of that action. |
ANS: C
REF: 105
2. Which
of the following is least accurate?
|
a. |
Experimentation is appropriate for
hypothesis testing. |
|
b. |
Experiments are well suited to research
involving well-defined concepts. |
|
c. |
Experiments cannot be used in the study
of criminal justice policy because they require a hypothesis to test. |
|
d. |
Experiments are appropriate for
evaluation research. |
ANS:
C
REF: 105
3. Which
of the following is not a central feature of the classical experiment?
|
a. |
variables |
|
b. |
time order |
|
c. |
concepts |
|
d. |
groups |
ANS:
C
REF: 105
4. Which
of the following is true concerning independent and dependent variables in
classical experiments?
|
a. |
A variable can be an independent in one
experiment and dependent in another. |
|
b. |
Once a variable is designated as an
independent variable in one experiment, it can never be used as a dependent
variable in another. |
|
c. |
A classical experiment examines the
effect of a dependent variable on an independent variable. |
|
d. |
An independent variable in a classical
experiment is viewed as the effect because it is dependent upon another
variable. |
ANS:
A
REF: 106
5. Which
of the following is an inaccurate statement?
|
a. |
The independent and dependent variables
must be operationally defined for the purposes of experimentation. |
|
b. |
The independent and dependent variables
are most often operationally defined before the experiment begins. |
|
c. |
It is possible for the independent and
dependent variables to be operationally defined after a wide variety of
observations are made. |
|
d. |
The independent and dependent variables
can never be operationally defined after a wide variety of observations
occur. |
ANS:
D
REF: 106
6. Which
of the following is a concern when selecting subjects for an experiment?
|
a. |
the manner in which subjects will be
selected |
|
b. |
what variables will be selected |
|
c. |
the sample to which the results will
apply |
|
d. |
level of measurement |
ANS:
A
REF: 108
7. Which
example below is not a random assignment to experimental groups?
|
a. |
Assigning numbers to subjects, put
corresponding numbers in a hat and pull out numbers placing the first subject
in the experimental group and the second subject in the control group and
continue until all numbers are used. |
|
b. |
Ask subjects whether they prefer to be
in the experimental group or the control group, then assign subjects based on
their preference. |
|
c. |
Flip a coin assigning subjects to the
control group and to the experimental group. |
|
d. |
Use a random number generator after
assigning numbers to your subjects. |
ANS:
B
REF: 109
8. Which
of the following is true regarding random assignment to groups?
|
a. |
“all other things being equal” |
|
b. |
“use your best guess” |
|
c. |
“it is close enough for government
work” |
|
d. |
“you are never 100% sure, so don’t
worry about it” |
ANS:
A
REF: 109
9. Which
of the following is not considered a threat to internal validity in an
experimental design?
|
a. |
maturation |
|
b. |
instrumentation |
|
c. |
randomization |
|
d. |
statistical regression |
ANS:
C
REF: 110
10.
Which of the following is an accurate example of threats to
internal validity of experiments?
|
a. |
subjects dropping out of an experiment |
|
b. |
selecting a random sample |
|
c. |
both a & b are threats to internal
validity |
|
d. |
none of the above |
ANS:
A
REF: 110
11.
Shortening the time between pretest and posttest or perhaps even
offering cash payments to participants in an experiment are techniques that may
be used to ________________.
|
a. |
limit diffusion |
|
b. |
decrease experimental mortality |
|
c. |
decrease the effects of instrumentation |
|
d. |
control threats to testing |
ANS:
B
REF: 111
12.
_______________ are two dimensions of generalizability.
|
a. |
Construct validity and external
validity |
|
b. |
Compensatory rivalry and external validity |
|
c. |
Construct validity and compensatory
rivalry |
|
d. |
Internal validity and diffusion |
ANS:
A
REF: 113
13.
Which of the following statements is accurate?
|
a. |
Threats to internal validity are
increased by carefully controlling conditions. |
|
b. |
Threats to internal validity are
decreased by carefully controlling conditions. |
|
c. |
Threats to generalizability of research
findings in experiments are unrelated to internal validity |
|
d. |
Threats to the sample to which the
results will apply |
ANS:
B
REF: 112
14.
When using a nonequivalent-groups design, the researcher will
handle subject assignment to groups by _________________.
|
a. |
random assignment to experimental and
control groups |
|
b. |
allowing subjects to pick which group
they want to be in |
|
c. |
matching subjects in the experimental
group to those in the comparison group |
|
d. |
using cohort studies |
ANS:
C
REF: 116
15.
In Widom’s study of the effects of child abuse and its impact
upon later criminal offenses, she selected a sample of children with court
records of being abuse victims and gathered a comparison group that were
matched on gender, race, age and socioeconomic status. The technique used in
this case was ____________________________.
|
a. |
individual matching |
|
b. |
aggregate matching |
|
c. |
randomization |
|
d. |
creaming |
ANS:
A
REF: 117
16.
Graduates majoring in criminal justice and graduates majoring in
psychology from the State University were part of a study to assess employment
success of those receiving their degrees in May 2002. Six months after
graduation (November 2002) a questionnaire was sent out asking about their job
seeking success. What type of design is this?
|
a. |
a double-blind experiment |
|
b. |
a non-equivalent groups design |
|
c. |
a time-series design |
|
d. |
a cohort design |
ANS:
D
REF: 119
17.
The threat of history refers to _____.
|
a. |
some subjects who have had history
classes and others who have not |
|
b. |
the realization that some subjects have
learned from history while others have not |
|
c. |
events external to the experiment that
will impact the results |
|
d. |
the fact that only current, relevant
subjects need be studied |
ANS: C
REF: 110
18.
Maturation as a threat to internal validity in experiments
refers to _____.
|
a. |
some subjects are older than others |
|
b. |
as people grow and change, results can
be impacted |
|
c. |
only subjects over the age of 21 are mature
enough to be part of an experiment |
|
d. |
no correlation between cause and effect
variable |
ANS:
B
REF: 110
19.
Which of the following would be an example of selection bias?
|
a. |
volunteers |
|
b. |
random assignment to experimental and
control groups |
|
c. |
matching on experimental and comparison
groups |
|
d. |
a double blind experiment. |
ANS:
A
REF: 111
20.
Which of the following would not be an example of experimental
mortality?
|
a. |
A subject deciding that he/she does not
want to participate any longer. |
|
b. |
Inmates in an experiment at the state
maximum security prison being moved to a minimum state prison. |
|
c. |
Police officers participating in a
quasi-experiment designed to measure job satisfaction changing careers. |
|
d. |
Experimental subjects who stay in an
experiment until it is completed. |
ANS:
D
REF: 111
21.
You have just completed the LSAT and scored 112. Your roommate,
who is no smarter than you, took the LSAT with you and scored 165. You were so
upset with your score that you decided to take the test again and you convinced
your roommate to take it with you for moral support. You both received scores
on the second exam of 150. What accounted for the differences in scores?
|
a. |
statistical regression |
|
b. |
testing |
|
c. |
instrumentation |
|
d. |
experiment mortality |
ANS:
A
REF: 111
22.
Neither the subjects nor the researcher can identify which group
is the control group and which is the experimental group. Which design does
this describe?
|
a. |
cross-sectional |
|
b. |
double-blind |
|
c. |
a blind experiment |
|
d. |
of no value |
ANS:
B
REF: 108
23.
External validity in an experimental design refers to _____.
|
a. |
the researcher’s ability to be sure
that they are measuring what they think they are measuring |
|
b. |
the lack of concern with issues
internal to the study |
|
c. |
the ability to apply findings to other
populations |
|
d. |
instrumentation |
ANS: C
REF: 113
24.
What can help rule out the threats to internal validity in an
experimental design?
|
a. |
proper selection and assignment of
subjects to groups |
|
b. |
large sample size |
|
c. |
small sample size |
|
d. |
nothing can rule out threats to
internal validity |
ANS:
A
REF: 112
25.
What technique can be used to help reduce the threat to
experimental mortality?
|
a. |
increasing the sample size |
|
b. |
decreasing the sample size |
|
c. |
shorten the time between the pretest
and the posttest |
|
d. |
select only subjects who are female |
ANS:
C
REF: 111
26.
Random assignment to experimental and control groups should
reduce the threats to _____.
|
a. |
instrumentation |
|
b. |
maturation |
|
c. |
generalizability |
|
d. |
small sample |
ANS:
B
REF: 110
27.
If randomization is not possible, what should the researcher do?
|
a. |
do nothing |
|
b. |
use the classical design |
|
c. |
use a quasi-experimental design |
|
d. |
Randomization is always possible. |
ANS:
C
REF: 116
28.
An interrupted time-series design can be very useful in what
type of research?
|
a. |
applied research |
|
b. |
exploratory research |
|
c. |
descriptive research |
|
d. |
double-blind research |
ANS: A
REF: 120
29.
A questionnaire is sent to 1,000 police departments in Florida
and gathers information on the number of sick days officers use after being
involved in a shooting incident. This is an example of what type of research?
|
a. |
variable-oriented research |
|
b. |
case-oriented research |
|
c. |
quasi-experimental design |
|
d. |
cohort design |
ANS:
B
REF: 124
30.
Experimental mortality is also known as ________.
|
a. |
selection |
|
b. |
regression |
|
c. |
attrition |
|
d. |
relevance |
ANS:
C
REF: 111
COMPLETION
1. In a
classical experiment, the researcher uses a(n) ____________________ to offset
the effects of the experiment itself.
ANS: control group
REF: 106
2. A(n)
_________________________ experiment guards against experimenters’ tendency to
prejudge results by eliminating the possibility of either the researcher or the
subjects knowing which group is the control and which group is the
experimental.
ANS:
double-blind
REF: 108
3. The
main reason why ____________ is used to select subjects for control and
experimental groups in a classical experiment is that the groups will be
statistically equivalent.
ANS: randomization
REF: 108
4. When
referring to whether results from experiments conducted in one setting would be
obtained in other settings, our main concern is one of _______________________.
ANS: external validity
REF: 113
5. When
random assignment to experimental and control groups is not possible, the
researcher may be forced to use a(n) _____________________ design.
ANS:
nonequivalent-group
REF: 116
6. Instead
of making one pre-test and one post-test measure, the _______________ makes a
longer series of observations before and after introducing an experimental
treatment.
ANS: interrupted time-series
design
REF: 120
7. When
there is a study of a large number of variables that are associated with a
small number of cases or subjects, the researcher is engaged in
__________________________ research.
ANS:
variable-oriented
REF: 124
8. An
example of variable-oriented research is the _________________ design.
ANS: case study
REF: 124
9. Creaming,
or skimming the best risks off the top to be incorporated in an experiment, is
a threat to _________________ validity.
ANS:
internal
REF: 110
10.
_____________________ refers to the ability to take findings
from an experiment and apply them to the real world.
ANS:
Generalizability
REF: 112
ESSAY
1. Explain
why experimentation is not well suited for the purposes of description and
exploration.
REF: 105
2. Explain
the classical experiment in terms of the following:
Independent and dependent variables
Pre-testing and Post-testing
Experimental and Control groups
REF: 105-107
3. Explain
the role of randomization in classical experiments.
REF: 108
4. Identify
and discuss at least five (5) threats to internal validity in experimental
designs. Include in your answer ways of controlling for each of the threats you
identify.
REF: 110
5. Give
two (2) specific examples of research where a quasi-experimental design would
be more appropriate than a classical experiment. Why would each of your
examples not fit the classical experiment model?
REF: 116
6. Describe
an experimental design to test the causal hypothesis that D.A.R.E. reduces drug
use. Is your experimental design feasible? Why or why not?
REF: Chapter 5
7. Experiments
are often conducted in public health research where a distinction is made
between an efficacy experiment and an effectiveness experiment. Efficacy
experiments focus on whether a new health program works under ideal conditions;
effectiveness experiments test the program under typical conditions that health
professionals encounter in their day-to-day work. Discuss how efficacy
experiments and effectiveness experiments reflect concerns about internal
validity threats on the one hand and generalizability on the other.
REF: 110-112
8. Crime
hot spots are areas where crime reports, calls for police service, or other
measures of crime are especially common. Police in departments with a good
analytic capability routinely identify hot spots and launch special tactics to
reduce crime in these areas. What kinds of validity threats should researchers
be especially attentive to in studying the effects of police interventions on
hot spots?
REF: 110-114
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